Karimun VS Taruna

SUZUKI KARIMUN VS DAIHATSU TARUNA
M E S I N

Dari segi mesin Karimun memang tidak dapat disetarakan dengan Taruna. Karimunmengadopsi mesin milik Suzuki Carry ST100, yang hanya memiliki kapasitas 970 CC,model segaris 4 silinder ala SOHC yang memiliki 8 katup. Sedang Taruna mengambil mesin 1600 CC milik Daihatsu Espass 1.6 model segaris, SOHC, 16 katup. Bila keduanya dibandingkan, prestasi mesin 1600 CC milik Taruna jauh lebih baik dibanding dapur pacu Karimun. Mesin Karimun hanya menghasilkan tenaga 56 Ps / 5.500 rpm, sedang milik Taruna bisa mencapai 86 Pc / 6.000 rpm. Pun begitu dengan torsi maksimalnya, Karimun hanya 7,8 kgm / 4.000 rpm, sedang milik Taruna mencapai 12,6 kgm / 3500 rpm. Untuk urusan urusan dapur pacu, kedua mobil berhidung ini memang tidak sekelas. Karena itu kedua mobil ini dikelompokkan dalam segmen yang berlainan. Bila Karimun masuk ke dalam segmen mobil jenis Multi Purpose Utility ( MPU ), maka Taruna tergolong pada mobil jenis KBNS, -sekelas dengan Kijang, Suzuki Vitara, dan sejenisnya.

B O D I


Dengan begitu, Karimun Karimun bakal menjadi pemain tunggal untuk kelompok MPU berhidung panjang di kelasnya. Di kelas inilah Karimun bakal mempertontonkan kelebihannya. Misalnya mesin yang hemat bahan bakar, satu - satunya MPU berpenggerak roda depan, dan menggunakan suspensi spiral di roda depan dan belakang. Hanya saja, MPU model gres bikinan Suzuki ini cuma dapat ditunggangi 4 orang dewasa, tidak seperti MPU generasi lawas seperti Suzuki Carry Extra 1.0 yang mampu memuat penumpang hingga 7 orang.

Tidak begitu dengan Taruna yang memiliki ruang penampung dan ukuran bodi yang jauh lebih lega. Soalnya, cikal bakal Taruna adalah Terios, jip keluaran Daihatsu yang banyak dipasarkan di Malaysia dan Taiwan. Taruna mampu memuat penumpang 7 orang dewasa, seperti KBNS lainnya. Cuma pihak ASTRA Daihatsu Motor tidak bulat - bulat menyontek semua spesifikasi milik Terios yang dijual di mancanegara. Misal, bila Terios menggunakan mesin 1.300 CC berpenggerak semua roda, maka Taruna meggunakan mesin 1.600 CC dengan sistem penggerak roda belakang.

Lantas, bagaimana dengan bodinya dibandingkan dengan Karimun ?. So pasti Taruna jauh lebih lapang. Jarak porosnya lebih panjang 165 mm, jarak pijak roda depannya lebih lebar 15 mm, dan 25 mm lebih lebar untuk jarak pijak roda belakangnya. Taruna menggunakan pintu bagasi model " lift back ", serupa Kijang. Hanya saja, ban cadangannya ditempatkan pada hanger yang terpasang di pintu belakang, sama persis dengan penempatan ban cadangan pada Nissan Terrano. Dari sisi modis, Taruna terkesan lebih jantan dibanding Karimun yang lebih bertampang imut-imut seperti kebanyakan mobil yng khusus diperuntukkna bagi kaum hawa.

K E N Y A M A N A N


Bagaimana dengan tingkat kenyamanannya ?. Karimun sudah pasti lebih nyaman lantaran bersuspensi seperti kebanyakan sedan : model independen McPherson di bagian depan dan pegas koil di bagian belakang. Sedang Taruna lebih mengutamakan sisi ketangguhan di segala medan dibanding faktor kenyamanan. Seperti diketahui, Jip banci milik Daihatsu ini menggunakan suspensi sama persis dengan Kijang : yang depan model independen berpegas Torsi, sedang yang belakang model kaku dengan pegas daun. Wajar saja bila mobil ini sanggup merambah segala medan jalan, termasuk untuk ber-off-road ria. Tidak seperti Karimun yang hanya mampu dikemudikan di jalan super mulus, seperti lazimnya sedan.

Nah ! mau Karimun yang imut-imut atau Taruna yang gagah perkasa ?

About Stephen Wolfram

Stephen Wolfram is a distinguished scientist, inventor, author, and business leader. He is the creator of Mathematica, the author of A New Kind of Science, the creator of Wolfram|Alpha, and the founder and CEO of Wolfram Research. His career has been characterized by a sequence of original and significant achievements.

Born in London in 1959, Wolfram was educated at Eton, Oxford, and Caltech. He published his first scientific paper at the age of 15, and had received his PhD in theoretical physics from Caltech by the age of 20. Wolfram's early scientific work was mainly in high-energy physics, quantum field theory, and cosmology, and included several now-classic results. Having started to use computers in 1973, Wolfram rapidly became a leader in the emerging field of scientific computing, and in 1979 he began the construction of SMP—the first modern computer algebra system—which he released commercially in 1981.

In recognition of his early work in physics and computing, Wolfram became in 1981 the youngest recipient of a MacArthur Prize Fellowship. Late in 1981 Wolfram then set out on an ambitious new direction in science aimed at understanding the origins of complexity in nature. Wolfram's first key idea was to use computer experiments to study the behavior of simple computer programs known as cellular automata. And starting in 1982 this allowed him to make a series of startling discoveries about the origins of complexity. The papers Wolfram published quickly had a major impact, and laid the groundwork for the emerging field that Wolfram called "complex systems research."

Through the mid-1980s, Wolfram continued his work on complexity, discovering a number of fundamental connections between computation and nature, and inventing such concepts as computational irreducibility. Wolfram's work led to a wide range of applications—and provided the main scientific foundations for such initiatives as complexity theory and artificial life. Wolfram himself used his ideas to develop a new randomness generation system and a new approach to computational fluid dynamics—both of which are now in widespread use.

Following his scientific work on complex systems research, in 1986 Wolfram founded the first research center and the first journal in the field, Complex Systems. Then, after a highly successful career in academia—first at Caltech, then at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, and finally as Professor of Physics, Mathematics, and Computer Science at the University of Illinois—Wolfram launched Wolfram Research, Inc.

Wolfram began the development of Mathematica in late 1986. The first version of Mathematica was released on June 23, 1988, and was immediately hailed as a major advance in computing. In the years that followed, the popularity of Mathematica grew rapidly, and Wolfram Research became established as a world leader in the software industry, widely recognized for excellence in both technology and business.

Following the release of Mathematica Version 2 in 1991, Wolfram began to divide his time between Mathematica development and scientific research. Building on his work from the mid-1980s, and now with Mathematica as a tool, Wolfram made a rapid succession of major new discoveries. By the mid-1990s his discoveries led him to develop a fundamentally new conceptual framework, which he then spent the remainder of the 1990s applying not only to new kinds of questions, but also to many existing foundational problems in physics, biology, computer science, mathematics, and several other fields.

After more than ten years of highly concentrated work, Wolfram finally described his achievements in his 1200-page book A New Kind of Science. Released on May 14, 2002, the book was widely acclaimed and immediately became a bestseller. Its publication has been seen as initiating a paradigm shift of historic importance in science, with new implications emerging at an increasing rate every year.

Wolfram has been president and CEO of Wolfram Research since its founding in 1987. In addition to his business leadership, Wolfram is deeply involved in the development of the company's technology, and continues to be personally responsible for overseeing all aspects of the functional design of the core Mathematica system.

Wolfram has a lifelong commitment to research and education. In addition to providing software for a generation of scientists and students, Wolfram's company maintains some of the web's most visited sites for technical information. Wolfram is also increasingly active in defining new directions for education, especially in the science he has created.

Building on Mathematica, A New Kind of Science, and the success of Wolfram Research, Wolfram in May 2009 launched Wolfram|Alpha—an ambitious, long-term project to make as much of the world's knowledge as possible computable, and accessible to everyone.

Merencanakan Membeli Mobil

Setiap keluarga pasti memiliki kebutuhan akan alat transportasi yang memadai untuk menunjang kegiatan sehari-hari. Bagaimana cara yang tepat untuk memilih kendaraan yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan?

Memiliki mobil yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan keluarga tentu menjadi dambaan setiap orang. Sebelum memutuskan untuk menganggarkan dana pembelian mobil, banyak hal yang harus diperhatikan. Tulisan ini akan membahas beberapa hal yang berhubungan dengan membeli mobil keluarga yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan.

MOBIL BARU VS MOBIL BEKAS
Banyak keluarga yang mendambakan mobil yang layak untuk dipakai, tetapi anggaran yang dimiliki terbatas. Mobil bekas seringkali menjadi alternatif pilihan untuk menghemat biaya. Tetapi, membeli mobil bekas seringkali menimbulkan hal-hal yang tidak diinginkan. Misalnya, ternyata surat-surat seperti BPKB (Bukti Pemilikan Kendaraan Bermotor) atau STNK (Surat Tanda Nomor Kendaraan) tidak sesuai dengan nomor mesin atau nomor rangka mobil yang kita beli, kondisi mesin yang dalam keadaan rusak yang tidak ketahui sebelumnya, atau kondisi body mobil yang sudah beberapa kali dicat ulang.

Tetapi perburuan mobil bekas menjadi sangat menarik jika kita dengan serius belajar untuk mengenal seluk-beluk penjualan mobil bekas ini. Beberapa orang yang penulis temui mendapatkan mobil bekas yang masih bagus dengan harga miring. Biasanya orang yang sangat membutuhkan uang untuk keperluan tertentu akan menjual mobilnya dengan harga lebih rendah daripada harga pasaran.

Jika kita memiliki dana yang cukup untuk membeli mobil baru, maka kita tinggal mengunjungi dealer mobil yang kita inginkan. Dengan membandingkan antara dealer satu dengan dealer lainnya, maka kita akan mendapatkan harga yang kompetitif dan bonus yang berlimpah. Perburuan mobil baru menjadi hal yang menarik juga.

GENGSI VS KEBUTUHAN
Seorang manajer di industri perbankan merasa bahwa membeli mobil adalah untuk meningkatkan gengsi. Orang lain akan melihat dia sebagai orang yang sukses, karena memiliki mobil yang bagus. Akhirnya dia membeli mobil yang cukup "berkelas" meskipun mobil tersebut mobil bekas. Ternyata mobil ini tidak sesuai kebutuhan keluarganya dengan tiga anak yang harus diantar jemput di sekolahnya, seorang baby sitter untuk anak yang paling kecil dan istri yang juga bekerja. Mobil berjenis sedan ini, ternyata hanya nyaman jika dimuati empat orang (termasuk sopir). Dengan tujuh orang yang ada saat berangkat pagi, mobil ini menjadi "siksaan" buat orang-orang yang ada di dalamnya.

Ilustrasi tadi menggambarkan bagaimana gengsi dari sang ayah harus mengorbankan kenyamanan dari anggota keluarga lainnya. Mobil yang memiliki kapasitas yang cukup besar adalah mobil yang lebih cocok dan lebih sesuai untuk kebutuhan keluarganya.

Bisa juga keluarga ini membeli mobil lain untuk antar jemput anak mereka pergi dan pulang sekolah. Tetapi tentunya biaya operasional maupun biaya pemeliharaan akan menjadi dua kali lipat dari sebelumnya.

BIAYA OPERASIONAL & PERAWATAN
Keluarga yang sebelumnya tidak memiliki mobil, tidak dapat membayangkan biaya operasional maupun perawatan yang timbul saat keluarga tersebut memiliki mobil. Biaya operasional mobil yang paling besar adalah untuk bahan bakar. Dengan harga bahan bakar yang cenderung meningkat secara reguler, maka biaya operasional akan meningkat. Pemilihan mobil yang irit dalam pemakaian bahan bakar menjadi pilihan saat ini.

Biaya perawatan untuk mobil bekas akan jauh lebih besar dibandingkan dengan mobil baru. Mobil bekas yang dijual di pasaran biasanya sudah melewati mass garansi perawatan mobil dari agen penjualan mobil. Pada umumnya biaya perawatan ini meliputi penggantian oli, penggantian suku cadang, tune up mesin yang harus dilakukan secara reguler. Beberapa penjual mobil baru menawarkan jaminan perawatan dan penggantian suku cadang dalam kurun waktu tertentu, sehingga pemilik mobil tidak perlu mengeluarkan biaya perawatan untuk ini.

Ada lagi pajak kendaraan yang harus kita bayar setiap tahun yang tergantung dari jenis mobil dan tahun pembuatan mobil. Pajak mobil sedan lebih tinggi dibandingkan minibus. Pajak mobil yang pembuatannya lima tahun yang lalu akan lebih murah dibandingkan dengan pajak mobil sejenis yang pembuatannya baru satu tahun.

PENURUNAN NILAI MOBIL
Secara umum nilai mobil akan turun seiiring dengan pemakaiannya. Mobil dengan tipe sama dan kondisi sama, tetapi tahun pembuatan yang berbeda akan memiliki nilai yang berbeda. Katakan penurunan harga mobil sebesar 10% setiap tahunnya, maka mobil seharga Rp 100 juta akan bernilai Rp 90 juta setahun ke depan, demikian seterusnya.

Kondisi mobil yang terawat akan memiliki nilai yang jual yang lebih tinggi dari harga rata-rata pasarannya. Memiliki mobil berarti memiliki aset yang cenderung turun setiap tahunnya, dengan perawatan dan pemakaian yang memadai, maka penurunan ini akan lebih rendah dari umumnya. Kita harus memperhatikan dengan serius hal ini.

PEMBIAYAAN
Saat ini banyak institusi pembiayaan yang membantu kita untuk mewujudkan impian memiliki mobil keluarga, seperti bank maupun lembaga leasing. Tingkat bunga maupun persyaratan yang diperlukan cukup bervariasi, tergantung kebijakan masing-masing lembaga tersebut. Besar cicilan utang maksimal 30% dari pendapatan kita. Jadi hitung terlebih dahulu cicilan utang lainnya saat ini, apakah jika digabungkan akan menghasilkan nilai yang lebih besar dari batasan tadi?

Jika kita memiliki dana tunai yang cukup untuk membeli mobil idaman kita, maka kita tidak perlu melalui lembaga pembiayaan tadi. Tetapi ada tambahan dana yang harus kita alokasikan untuk membeli asuransi mobil atau persyaratan lain yang diperlukan. Jadi, teliti dan berhitunglah sebelum membeli mobil idaman. (*)

Sumber foto: Gettyimages.com

Sumber: Investor indonesia

Software Free Download

Partition-Wizard-Home-Edition
Fitur-fitur Partition Wizard Home Edition :
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Foxit Reader is a free PDF document viewer, with incredible small size, breezing-fast launch speed and rich feature set. Its core function is compatible with PDF Standard 1.7.
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AVG Anti-Virus Free Edition is trusted antivirus and antispyware protection for Windows available to download for free. In addition, the new included LinkScanner® Active Surf-Shield checks web pages for threats at the only time that matters – when you're about to click that link.
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The Web is all about innovation, and Firefox sets the pace with dozens of new features to deliver a faster, more secure and customizable Web browsing experience for all.
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Moyea SWF to MPEG Converter is a handy utility that can perfectly convert Flash SWF to MPEG (VOB & MPG) video files compatible with DVD, VCD & SVCD for playback on your DVD player. Besides, this MPEG Converter is developed to rip SWF to MP3,AAC, WMA, WAV audio files for CD and support batch mode conversion. Its manual mode allows capturing interactive Flash for conversion. Ver.3.7 (19.02 MB) (Download)

PDFCreator is a free tool to create PDF files from nearly any Windows application.

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Winamp is a skinnable, multi-format media player.

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Java software allows you to run applications called "applets" that are written in the Java programming language. These applets allow you to have a much richer experience online than simply interacting with static HTML pages.
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Paint.NET is image and photo manipulation software designed to be used on computers that run XP, Server 2003 or Vista.

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Picasa is software that helps you instantly find, edit and share all the pictures on your PC. Every time you open Picasa, it automatically locates all your pictures (even ones you forgot you had) and sorts them into visual albums organized by date with folder names you will recognize. You can drag and drop to arrange your albums and make labels to create new groups. Picasa makes sure your pictures are always organized.
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Filsafat Pendidikan

Filsafat Pendidikan

Merupakan terapan dari filsafat umum, maka selama membahas filsafat pendidikan akan berangkat dari filsafat.
Filsafat pendidikan pada dasarnya menggunakan cara kerja filsafat dan akan menggunakan hasil-hasil dari filsafat, yaitu berupa hasil pemikiran manusia tentang realitas, pengetahuan, dan nilai.
Dalam filsafat terdapat berbagai mazhab/aliran-aliran, seperti materialisme, idealisme, realisme, pragmatisme, dan lain-lain. Karena filsafat pendidikan merupakan terapan dari filsafat, sedangkan filsafat beraneka ragam alirannya, maka dalam filsafat pendidikan pun kita akan temukan berbagai aliran, sekurang-kurnagnya sebanyak aliran filsafat itu sendiri.
Brubacher (1950) mengelompokkan filsafat pendidikan pada dua kelompok besar, yaitu

a. Filsafat pendidikan “progresif”
Didukung oleh filsafat pragmatisme dari John Dewey, dan romantik naturalisme dari Roousseau
b. Filsafat pendidikan “ Konservatif”.
Didasari oleh filsafat idealisme, realisme humanisme (humanisme rasional), dan supernaturalisme atau realisme religius.

Filsafat-filsafat tersebut melahirkan filsafat pendidikan esensialisme, perenialisme,dan sebagainya.

Berikut aliran-aliran dalam filsafat pendidikan:
1. Filsafat Pendidikan Idealisme memandang bahwa realitas akhir adalah roh, bukan materi, bukan fisik. Pengetahuan yang diperoleh melaui panca indera adalah tidak pasti dan tidak lengkap. Aliran ini memandang nilai adalah tetap dan tidak berubah, seperti apa yang dikatakan baik, benar, cantik, buruk secara fundamental tidak berubah dari generasi ke generasi. Tokoh-tokoh dalam aliran ini adalah: Plato, Elea dan Hegel, Emanuael Kant, David Hume, Al Ghazali

2. Filsafat Pendidikan Realisme merupakan filsafat yang memandang realitas secara dualitis. Realisme berpendapat bahwa hakekat realitas ialah terdiri atas dunia fisik dan dunia ruhani. Realisme membagi realitas menjadi dua bagian, yaitu subjek yang menyadari dan mengetahui di satu pihak dan di pihak lainnya adalah adanya realita di luar manusia, yang dapat dijadikan objek pengetahuan manusia. Beberapa tokoh yang beraliran realisme: Aristoteles, Johan Amos Comenius, Wiliam Mc Gucken, Francis Bacon, John Locke, Galileo, David Hume, John Stuart Mill.

3. Filsafat Pendidikan Materialisme berpandangan bahwa hakikat realisme adalah materi, bukan rohani, spiritual atau supernatural. Beberapa tokoh yang beraliran materialisme: Demokritos, Ludwig Feurbach

4. Filsafat Pendidikan Pragmatisme dipandang sebagai filsafat Amerika asli. Namun sebenarnya berpangkal pada filsafat empirisme Inggris, yang berpendapat bahwa manusia dapat mengetahui apa yang manusia alami. Beberapa tokoh yang menganut filsafat ini adalah: Charles sandre Peirce, wiliam James, John Dewey, Heracleitos.

5. Filsafat Pendidikan Eksistensialisme memfokuskan pada pengalaman-pengalaman individu. Secara umum, eksistensialisme menekankn pilihan kreatif, subjektifitas pengalaman manusia dan tindakan kongkrit dari keberadaan manusia atas setiap skema rasional untuk hakekat manusia atau realitas. Beberapa tokoh dalam aliran ini: Jean Paul Satre, Soren Kierkegaard, Martin Buber, Martin Heidegger, Karl Jasper, Gabril Marcel, Paul Tillich

6. Filsafat Pendidikan Progresivisme bukan merupakan bangunan filsafat atau aliran filsafat yang berdiri sendiri, melainkan merupakan suatu gerakan dan perkumpulan yang didirikan pada tahun 1918. Aliran ini berpendapat bahwa pengetahuan yang benar pada masa kini mungkin tidak benar di masa mendatang. Pendidikan harus terpusat pada anak bukannya memfokuskan pada guru atau bidang muatan. Beberapa tokoh dalam aliran ini : George Axtelle, william O. Stanley, Ernest Bayley, Lawrence B.Thomas, Frederick C. Neff

7. Filsafat Pendidikan esensialisme Esensialisme adalah suatu filsafat pendidikan konservatif yang pada mulanya dirumuskan sebagai suatu kritik pada trend-trend progresif di sekolah-sekolah. Mereka berpendapat bahwa pergerakan progresif telah merusak standar-standar intelektual dan moral di antara kaum muda. Beberapa tokoh dalam aliran ini: william C. Bagley, Thomas Briggs, Frederick Breed dan Isac L. Kandell.

8. Filsafat Pendidikan Perenialisme Merupakan suatu aliran dalam pendidikan yang lahir pada abad kedua puluh. Perenialisme lahir sebagai suatu reaksi terhadap pendidikan progresif. Mereka menentang pandangan progresivisme yang menekankan perubahan dan sesuatu yang baru. Perenialisme memandang situasi dunia dewasa ini penuh kekacauan, ketidakpastian, dan ketidakteraturan, terutama dalam kehidupan moral, intelektual dan sosio kultual. Oleh karena itu perlu ada usaha untuk mengamankan ketidakberesan tersebut, yaitu dengan jalan menggunakan kembali nilai-nilai atau prinsip-prinsip umum yang telah menjadi pandangan hidup yang kukuh, kuat dan teruji. Beberapa tokoh pendukung gagasan ini adalah: Robert Maynard Hutchins dan Ortimer Adler.

9. Filsafat Pendidikan rekonstruksionisme merupakan kelanjutan dari gerakan progresivisme. Gerakan ini lahir didasarkan atas suatu anggapan bahwa kaum progresif hanya memikirkan dan melibatkan diri dengan masalah-masalah masyarakat yang ada sekarang. Rekonstruksionisme dipelopori oleh George Count dan Harold Rugg pada tahun 1930, ingin membangun masyarakat baru, masyarakat yang pantas dan adil. Beberapa tokoh dalam aliran ini:Caroline Pratt, George Count, Harold Rugg.

"Fenomena ”Hidup Lebih Maju"
Setiap orang, pasti menginginkan hidup bahagia. Salah satu diantaranya yakni hidup lebih baik dari sebelumnya atau bisa disebut hidup lebih maju. Hidup maju tersebut didukung atau dapat diwujudkan melalui pendidikan. Dikaitkan dengan penjelasaan diatas, menurut pendapat saya filsafat pendidikan yang sesuai atau mengarah pada terwujudnya kehidupan yang maju yakni filsafat yang konservatif yang didukung oleh sebuah idealisme, rasionalisme(kenyataan). Itu dikarenakan filsafat pendidikan mengarah pada hasil pemikiran manusia mengenai realitas, pengetahuan, dan nilai seperti yang telah disebutkan diatas.
Jadi, aliran filsafat yang pas dan sesuai dengan pendidikan yang mengarah pada kehidupan yang maju menurut pikiran saya yakni filsafat pendidikan progresivisme (berfokus pada siswanya). Tapi akan lebih baik lagi bila semua filsafat diatas bisa saling melengkapi.

sumber : http://perpustakaan-online.blogspot.com

RADIOACTIVITY

OVER VIEW
This lesson can be used as an introduction to radioactivity. Students should have familiarity with the scientific notation and the units milli, micro, and nano. Students will be introduced to being science/math detectives by trying to figure out the relationship of organisms using graphs. Students then are introduced to the controversy around the Shroud of Turin, which has been carbon dated. What is the process of carbon dating, and can the results be believed? Through the use of an interactive Web site, students will learn about C-14 and C-14 dating. Then students will analyze an article written about the C-14 dating of the Shroud of Turin and draw conclusions. Although the results are definitive, they can be used to support either point of view. Finally, students will do a radioactive simulation with pennies to reinforce the skills they learned about radioactive decay.

Learning Activities

Students will be able to:
* Explain how graphed data can be misleading
* Define and explain the process of radioactive decay
* Make predictions based on the collection of census simulation data
* Explain what half-life is and how it can be used
* Develop and use a mathematical formula for radioactive decay
* Set up a data table and plot the decay curve for a radioactive element
* Plot the product curve for radioactive decay
* Determine the half-life using the decay and product curve for a radioactive element
* Use the Internet to learn about the process of radioactive decay
* Discover a limiting factor of radioactive decay
* Solve a real-life problem using technology, math, and science

In the nineteenth century, Henri Becquerel accidentally put a piece of uranium ore on top of a metal key on a photographic plate in a draw. When he examined the photographic plate a few days later, he found that it had gone completely foggy except for the part which was underneath the key.

Becquerel conlcuded that there were some sort of rays coming off the uranium which were ruining the photograph, but that the key was blocking these rays. He had discovered radioactivity.

In the next few years, the nature of radioactivity was sorted out. Scientists like Marie Curie and her husband Pierre worked hard to isolate other radioactive elements such as Polonium and Radium. Knowledge of radioactivity helped scientists to work out the structure of atoms.

To date, about 20 radioactive elements have been discovered, all beyond Lead at the bottom of the periodic table. It is thought that these atoms are unstable because their nuclei are so large - like a pile of bricks toppling over when it gets too high.

In addition to these large atoms, there are also various isotopes of smaller atoms which are also radioactive.

Radioactive atoms break down into smaller pieces through radioactive decay. All radioactive decay involves particles or rays emerging from the nucleus. The orbiting electrons are not involved in radioactive decay at all. Since the identity of the atom (which element it is) depends on how many protons are in the nucleus, radioactive decay often means the atom changes from one element to another. The new atom may also be radioactive, so one atom may go through several different elements before becoming stable.

Alpha particles

A common type of radiation is alpha radiation. An alpha particle (symbol α) consists of two protons and two neutrons, which is the same as the nucleus of a Helium atom. The alpha particles often pick up stray electrons to become proper Helium atoms. Indeed, one way to detect when a substance is an alpha-emitter (giving off alpha particles) is the slight trace of helium. Helium is so light that it floats out of the Earth's atmosphere, so all Helium discovered on Earth results from alpha decay.

When an atom gives off an alpha particle, the number of protons goes down by 2 and the number of particles in the nucleus goes down by 4. This turns the atom into another element. Here are two examples of alpha decay:



(The upper figure in each case is the Relative Atomic Mass, i.e. how many protons and neutrons the nucleus contains. The lower figure in each case is the Atomic Number, i.e. how many protons are in the nucleus).

Since alpha particles are positively charged, they are deflected by electrical and magnetic fields. Alpha particles are attracted to the negative terminal of electric fields, as opposite charges attract.

Radioactive particles are detected by a device called a Geiger counter (the purple rectangle at the top of the image).

Click on the Field On/Off icon to switch the electric field on or off. Then use the mouse to drag the Geiger counter right or left to track the moving particle beam.

Beta particles

Another type of radiation is slightly more puzzling than alpha radiation. It was discovered that some types of atoms emitted electrons moving at almost the speed of light from their nucleus. Electrons weren't supposed to exist in the nucleus! This mysterious radioactivity was called Beta radiation (symbol β).

Eventually, it was discovered that beta decay happened when a neutron inside the nucleus decayed to form a proton and ejected a high-speed electron.
When an atom decays through Beta emission, a proton is created at the expense of a neutron. This means that the atomic number (the number of protons) increases by 1, but the mass does not change, since the electron ejected has virtually no mass.

Thorium-234 decays through Beta emission to form Protactinium-234. This decays in turn through Beta emission to form an isotope of Uranium called Uranium-234. You notice that although two electrons have been ejected, the mass remains the same throughout.



Since beta particles are electrons, they carry a negative charge and so are deflected by electrical and magnetic fields.

When placed in an electrical field, beta particles deflect towards the positive terminal as opposite charges attract. The beam does not deflect as much as a beam of alpha particles would. Even though beta particles are less massive than alpha particles, they travel so quickly that very little deflection is possible. Click on the purple Geiger counter in the image to the left to move it right and left.

Beta particles are more powerful than alpha particles. They are blocked by a few centimetres of aluminium or several metres of air.

Gamma Rays

The third common type of radiation is the easiest to understand. Gamma rays are a type of electromagnetic rays, similar to light and X-rays. They are the most powerful type of electromagnetic ray known, being at the extreme high-frequency end of the electromagnetic spectrum.

A gamma ray (symbol γ) represents the atom "cooling off". It does not alter the mass or atomic number of the atom in any way. Gamma rays are very powerful, being able to penetrate several centimetres of lead! A great thickness of lead is needed to block them completely. Elements which give off gamma rays often give off other types of radiation as well!

Alpha, beta and gamma radiation are the three most common types of radiation, but there are others, for instance, neutron emission.


Half Life


Radioactive atoms do not all decay at the same time but randomly. Each atom is like a tiny bomb with a fuse of random length. Initially, when there is a large number of atoms, a great many of them decay. Later, as the number of undecayed atoms goes down, the number that decay in any second also goes down. This gives the amount of radioactive material the curve shape shown above. You can see the number of radioactive atoms initially drops off quickly, then gradually slows down.

Even though atoms decay randomly, because there are billions of atoms present, their overall behaviour follows a mathematical pattern. Each element has a time period called the Half Life, which is the time taken for half the element to decay. After one half life, half the element is left. After another, a quarter is left. After another, one eighth is left etc. Half lives vary from thousands of years (Uranium) to fractions of a seconds (Beryllium-5).

The time period is a particular number for each radioactive element, and depends on various things such as the forces holding the nucleus of those atoms together. Please note that different isotopes of the same element may have different half lives. For instance, the half life of Uranium-235 is different from that of Uranium-238!

Here's an example. Let's suppose that the half life of some element X is exactly 80 days. If you carefully purified 100g of element X, then 80 days later you would have 50g of X mixed together with 50g of whatever X decayed into. The material would still weigh 100g, but only 50g of it would be X. Then, after another 80 days, only 25g of the material would be X, and after another 80 days (that's 240 days from when you purified it!), only 12.5g would be X. In theory, the proportion of the material that is element X never drops to 0, but after a few years, the amount of element X in the sample would be so small that it would be undetectable, and we would say that the element had completely decayed.

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Mudah-mudahan bermanfaat dan Selamat Mencoba

Asyik... Guru Siap Terima Rapelan Kenaikan Gajinya

Rabu, 30 Desember 2009 | 13:18 WIB
JAKARTA, KOMPAS.com — Para guru berstatus pegawai negeri sipil daerah (PNSD) bersiap menerima rapelan kenaikan gaji sebesar Rp 250.000 per bulan. Alokasi dana rapel yang berjumlah total Rp 4,5 triliun tersebut sudah dicairkan minggu ini setelah Peraturan Presiden sebagai payung hukumnya diterbitkan pada 1 Desember lalu.

"Peraturan Menteri Keuangan (PMK) terkait hal ini juga sudah ada," kata Direktur Jenderal Perimbangan Keuangan Departemen Keuangan (Depkeu) Mardiasmo, di Gedung Depkeu, Jakarta, Rabu (30/12/2009).

Rapelan tersebut dibayar untuk masa setahun sehingga setahun guru PNSD mendapat Rp 3 juta dari hasil rapelan. "Rapel ini bagian dari kenaikan gaji PNSD, supaya gajinya naik menjadi minimal Rp 2 juta per bulan," tuturnya.

Dia melanjutkan, tambahan gaji ini juga akan dilanjutkan pada tahun depan. Sementara itu, Direktur Jenderal Perbendaharaan Negara Depkeu Herry Purnomo mengatakan, rapelan tersebut siap diterima gu ru PNSD tergantung pencairan yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah daerah (pemda).

"Kalau dari pemerintah pusat dananya sudah di-drop minggu-minggu ini," kata dia.